What Causes a Lack of Belonging at School?

Think about a pupil who comes to school every day, sits in the right lessons, and hands in their work on time. On paper, they look fine. Yet they feel like they are watching school happen rather than being part of it. That gap between attending and truly belonging sits at the heart of this topic, and it matters more than many of us realise.

Belonging is a pupil's sense that they are accepted, valued, included, and supported within the school community. When it is strong, young people engage more, attend more, and feel safe enough to ask for help. When it is missing, the effects ripple through attendance, behaviour, mental health, and attainment.

So what does the research tell us about why some pupils struggle to feel they belong? The evidence gives us a clear and, reassuringly, largely actionable picture. Let us walk through it together.

A Note on the Research: Risk Factors, Not Simple Causes

Before we explore the evidence, it is worth being honest about what the research can and cannot tell us. Much of the literature on school belonging is correlational rather than experimental. That means studies identify experiences and conditions that consistently predict lower belonging, but it is harder to say with certainty that one factor directly causes another.

The strongest conclusion we can draw is this: the research identifies plausible and repeatedly observed risk factors. Teacher relationships, peer exclusion or victimisation, discrimination, safety, fairness, and self-perceptions appear especially consistently across studies. However, the research does not yet justify a simple causal ranking of these factors.

To make strong causal claims, we would need randomised or quasi-experimental research, credible natural experiments, stronger longitudinal controls, or studies that alter school conditions while comparing outcomes against a similar group. Researchers reviewing this field themselves call for more longitudinal and experimental work to build on what we already know.

This does not diminish the value of what the evidence shows us. Quite the opposite. It means we have a well-evidenced map of where to focus our energy, even if the exact pathways are still being understood. The factors described below are not guesses; they are some of the most consistent findings in the field.

Belonging Is Built, Not Fixed

Here is the encouraging news. A lack of belonging at school is rarely about something fixed inside a child. It builds up over time through repeated experiences, most of which schools can influence.

Researchers describe belonging as a multi-level experience (Allen et al., 2018). It is shaped by relationships, classrooms, whole-school culture, families, and wider community factors, rather than by a single pupil trait. That means the daily signals we send, often without thinking, genuinely shape whether a young person feels they belong.

When pupils repeatedly receive signals that they are unsafe, unseen, unvalued, or only conditionally accepted, belonging erodes. Flip those signals, and it grows.

Weak or Distant Relationships With Staff

The single most consistent risk factor associated with low belonging is the quality of the relationship pupils have with the adults around them. In a meta-analysis of 51 studies involving more than 67,000 pupils, teacher support emerged as the strongest predictor of belonging (Allen et al., 2018).

What do pupils mean by support? It is not grand gestures. They describe teachers who notice them, respond to their needs, listen, and combine academic help with emotional warmth (Ellerbrock et al., 2014). Simple things. Greeting a pupil by name. Noticing when someone is quieter than usual. Correcting privately rather than publicly.

Fairness matters just as much as warmth. Across a study of 15-year-olds in 41 countries, teacher-student relationships had the strongest link with belonging (Chiu, 2015). When pupils experience rules as arbitrary or unevenly applied, their sense of being a legitimate member of the community takes a hit.

One useful caution: adults and pupils do not always see the same picture. Research in secondary settings found teachers and students valued different things, with pupils placing more weight on safety and peer relationships (Zaatari and Ibrahim, 2021). A school can run excellent pastoral programmes on paper while some pupils still feel invisible day to day.

Peer Exclusion and Bullying

If adults open the door to belonging, peers often decide whether a pupil walks through it. Perceived peer support is one of the strongest predictors of belonging, closely followed by loneliness at school (Quintana, 2021).

Low belonging does not always involve obvious bullying. It can grow quietly through repeated non-inclusion. A pupil rarely chosen for group work, seldom greeted, or always on the edge of the friendship group may slowly conclude the school's social world was not built for them.

Where bullying and victimisation are present, the association is sharper. A large study of over 3,000 pupils found bullying negatively predicted belonging, while sociability, resilience, and engagement strengthened it (Reis et al., 2025). It is worth defining victimisation broadly here, to include social exclusion and status put-downs, not only physical or verbal attacks.

Belonging and behaviour also appear to influence each other over time (Cedeno, 2010). Pupils who feel rejected may withdraw or act defensively, which can invite further rejection. This matters because it shifts the question from "what is wrong with this child?" to "what is happening in the interactions around them?"

School Climates That Feel Unsafe or Unfair

Pupils are unlikely to feel they belong in places they experience as unpredictable or humiliating. Safety is one of the core themes consistently linked to belonging (Allen et al., 2018), and it means more than freedom from physical harm. It includes confidence that adults will step in, that mistakes will not trigger public shame, and that pupils can be themselves without ridicule.

School climate operates through shared expectations, discipline, and relationships. In a large multilevel study, academic expectations mattered most for younger pupils, while disciplinary climate mattered more for older ones. Notably, self-esteem and health were stronger predictors of belonging than many demographic factors (Ma, 2003).

The lesson here is gentle but important. Punitive or inconsistent discipline can signal to some pupils that they are being managed rather than welcomed. A calm, consistent, and fair climate does the opposite.

Little or No Student Voice

Belonging is also associated with whether pupils feel they can influence the spaces they are part of. Where student voice and involvement are present, belonging tends to be higher (Treene, 2025).

A lack of voice shows up in familiar ways. Decisions made without consultation. Feedback that never changes anything. Discussions dominated by the same few pupils. Activities that reflect only a narrow set of interests.

Voice does not mean every preference gets acted on. It means a pupil experiences their perspective being genuinely heard and connected to what actually happens in school. That shift, from being a subject of decisions to a co-member of the community, is powerful.

Identity, Discrimination, and Feeling Represented

For some pupils, belonging is undermined by the sense that their identity is treated as marginal. Discrimination is directly associated with this experience, and the source matters.

In Flemish secondary schools, discrimination from teachers was negatively associated with belonging (D'hondt et al., 2013). Because teachers carry formal authority, mistreatment from an adult can signal that the school itself rejects a pupil. Later research found ethnic victimisation was especially damaging (D'hondt et al., 2015).

Climate and representation count too. Where pupils perceive an inclusive, respectful diversity climate, it can buffer the impact of discrimination on engagement (Heikamp et al., 2020). The encouraging takeaway is that a welcoming culture, visible representation, and openness about difference actively support belonging.

Socioeconomic Pressures and Family Context

Belonging is also shaped by resources and home circumstances, though rarely in a simple way. Socioeconomic status has been linked to belonging even after accounting for teacher support and bullying (Allen et al., 2022). Material resources can affect access to trips, technology, clubs, and other valued forms of participation.

Family context matters too, often working through a pupil's self-belief. One study found family functioning was linked to belonging partly through self-support and self-esteem (Xin et al., 2024). The hopeful point is that school relationships and safety remain relevant across every socioeconomic group. A warm, stable school can help buffer pressures a young person carries from outside the gates.

Transitions Between Schools and Phases

Transitions are a well-known pressure point. Moving to a new setting changes friendships, routines, adult relationships, and academic demands all at once.

One longitudinal study found that belonging in primary school accounted for a meaningful share of belonging in secondary school, with competence and coping skills playing a role too (Vaz et al., 2015). Interestingly, perceived tolerance of disability predicted belonging, while disability status itself did not. Culture, again, does the heavy lifting.

Transition effects are not inevitable. The risk lies in mismatch, when schools become larger, busier, and less personal at exactly the moment pupils need continuity and recognition. Thoughtful transition planning, buddy systems, and familiar faces make a real differenc

Where to Start: Building Belonging in Your School

If that list feels like a lot, take heart. Almost every cause we have covered points back to the same solution: a whole-school culture where pupils feel safe, seen, valued, and connected. You do not need to fix everything at once. You need a confident first step. Here are three practical routes, grounded in evidence.

1. Peer-led support through Wellbeing Ambassadors

Since peer relationships are so central to belonging, empowering pupils to support one another is one of the most effective moves you can make. Our Wellbeing Ambassadors programme trains pupils to run buddy systems, lunchtime drop-ins, and anti-stigma campaigns — spreading responsibility for belonging across the whole community. It also puts pupil voice at the heart of your wellbeing strategy. When young people are given the tools and confidence to lead, they don't just support their peers — they shape the culture around them. It uses a sustainable train-the-trainer model, so two members of staff can lead it in-house.

To explore how peer support strengthens belonging, inclusion, and pupil voice, download our free Peer Support Info Pack or watch our Introduction to Wellbeing Ambassadors webinar.

2. Coaching skills to support young people

Strong adult relationships are the foundation of belonging, and coaching gives staff practical skills to build them. Student Wellbeing Coaching helps pupils feel heard, develop self-awareness, and grow their confidence and coping, all of which feed directly into belonging. If you want to equip your team to have more supportive, empowering conversations, our Introduction to Coaching Young People CPD bundle is a great place to begin.

3. Not sure where to start? Use the free planning tool

If you are weighing up priorities and want clarity before you commit time or budget, our free Wellbeing and Inclusion Planning Tool takes under five minutes. It helps you identify your school's starting point and gives you a personalised next step for developing belonging and inclusion.

Belonging is not built in a single assembly or policy. It grows through everyday signals that tell each young person they matter here. The good news is that those signals are within your gift, and small, consistent steps add up to real change.

References

• Allen, K., Kern, M. L., Vella-Brodrick, D., Hattie, J., & Waters, L. (2018). What schools need to know about fostering school belonging: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review.
• Allen, K.-A., Cordoba, B., Parks, A., & Arslan, G. (2022). Does socioeconomic status moderate the relationship between school belonging and school-related factors in Australia? Child Indicators Research.
• Cedeno, L. A. (2010). An examination of the mutual impact of students' sense of school belonging and adjustment in a sample of urban, ethnic-minority, elementary-aged students. Rutgers University Community Repository.
• Chiu, M. M. (2015). Students' sense of belonging at school in 41 countries. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology.
• D'hondt, F., Stevens, P., & Van Houtte, M. (2013). The impact of racial and nonracial peer and teacher discrimination on the sense of school belonging of Turkish and Moroccan minority students in Flanders.
• D'hondt, F., Van Houtte, M., & Stevens, P. A. J. (2015). How does ethnic and non-ethnic victimization by peers and by teachers relate to the school belongingness of ethnic minority students in Flanders, Belgium? Social Psychology of Education.
• Ellerbrock, C., Kiefer, S. M., & Alley, K. (2014). School-based interpersonal relationships. Middle Grades Research Journal.
• Goodenow, C. (1993). Classroom belonging among early adolescent students: Relationships to motivation and achievement. Journal of Early Adolescence.
• Heikamp, T., Phalet, K., Van Laar, C., & Verschueren, K. (2020). To belong or not to belong: Protecting minority engagement in the face of discrimination. International Journal of Psychology.
• Ma, X. (2003). Sense of belonging to school: Can schools make a difference? The Journal of Educational Research.
• Quintana, R. (2021). Who belongs in school? Using statistical learning techniques to identify linear, nonlinear and interactive effects. The Quantitative Methods for Psychology.
• Reis, M., Noronha, C., Tomé, G., Carvalho, M., Rodrigues, N., & Matos, M. G. de. (2025). Fostering school belonging among Portuguese adolescents: Psychosocial predictors and guidelines for educational action. Adolescents.
• Treene, J. (2025). Examining key predictors of student belonging and school connectedness in middle and high school students. Rutgers University Community Repository.
• Vaz, S., Falkmer, M., Ciccarelli, M., Passmore, A., Parsons, R., Black, M. H., Cuomo, B., Tan, T., & Falkmer, T. (2015). Belongingness in early secondary school: Key factors that primary and secondary schools need to consider. PLoS ONE.
• Xin, B., Yao, Z., & Min, O. (2024). Impact of family cohesion and adaptability on students' sense of school belonging: Chain mediating effects of self-support and self-esteem. Social Behavior and Personality.
• Zaatari, W. E., & Ibrahim, A. (2021). What promotes adolescents' sense of school belonging? Students and teachers' convergent and divergent views. Cogent Education.